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Report
The cost of capital of the financial sector
Muir, Tyler; Adrian, Tobias; Friedman, Evan (2015-12-01)
Standard factor pricing models do not capture well the common time-series or cross-sectional variation in average returns of financial stocks. We propose a five-factor asset pricing model that complements the standard Fama and French (1993) three-factor model with a financial sector ROE factor (FROE) and the spread between the financial sector and the market return (SPREAD). This five-factor model helps to alleviate the pricing anomalies for financial sector stocks and also performs well for nonfinancial sector stocks compared with the Fama and French (2014) five-factor model or the Hou, Xue, ...
Staff Reports , Paper 755

Working Paper
Risks and Uncertainty in Monetary Policy
Adrian, Tobias; Giannone, Domenico; Luciani, Matteo; West, Mike (2026-09-01)
Central banks monitor macroeconomic risk through two traditions: scenario analysis, regularly used since the mid-1990s, and distributional forecasting, practiced since the late 1960s. The two are complementary but separate: scenarios provide narratives without probabilities, while predictive distributions provide probabilities with limited economic interpretation. Treating baseline forecasts and scenarios as conditional predictive densities, and distributional forecasts as reference predictive distributions, places both within a common framework and clarifies their roles. The Scenario ...
Finance and Economics Discussion Series , Paper 2026-061

Report
Dynamic Leverage Asset Pricing
Shin, Hyun Song; Adrian, Tobias; Moench, Emanuel (2013-08-01)
We empirically investigate predictions from alternative intermediary asset pricing theories. The theories distinguish themselves in their use of intermediary equity or leverage as pricing factors or forecasting variables. We find strong support for a parsimonious dynamic pricing model based on broker-dealer leverage as the return forecasting variable and shocks to broker-dealer leverage as a cross-sectional pricing factor. The model performs well in comparison to other intermediary asset pricing models as well as benchmark pricing models, and extends the cross-sectional results by Adrian, ...
Staff Reports , Paper 625

Report
Discussion of “Systemic Risk and the Solvency-Liquidity Nexus of Banks”
Adrian, Tobias (2015-04-01)
Pierret (2015) presents empirical analysis of the solvency-liquidity nexus for the banking system, documenting that a shock to the level of banks? solvency risk is followed by lower short-term debt. Conversely, higher short-term debt Granger-causes higher solvency risk. These results point toward a tight interaction between solvency and liquidity risk over time. My comments are threefold. First, I suggest improving the identification of shocks in Pierret?s vector autoregressive setup. Second, I caution against using the quantitative results as the basis for setting policy. Third, I recommend ...
Staff Reports , Paper 722

Discussion Paper
Intermediary Leverage Cycles and Financial Stability
Adrian, Tobias; Boyarchenko, Nina (2013-11-20)
The financial crisis of 2007-09 highlighted the central role that financial intermediaries play in the propagation and amplification of shocks. Intermediaries increase leverage during the boom, which then makes them more vulnerable to adverse economic developments. In this post, we review evidence on the balance-sheet behavior of financial intermediaries and describe a channel that allows intermediaries to increase leverage during booms when asset market volatility tends to be low, which in turn forces them to dramatically reduce leverage once volatility increases. As shown during the ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20131120

Discussion Paper
Has Liquidity Risk in the Treasury and Equity Markets Increased?
Vogt, Erik; Fleming, Michael J.; Adrian, Tobias; Stackman, Daniel (2015-10-06)
Market participants have argued that market liquidity has deteriorated since the financial crisis. However, inspection of common metrics such as bid-ask spreads, market depth, and price impact do not show pronounced reductions in liquidity compared with precrisis levels. In this post, we argue that recent changes in liquidity conditions may best be described in terms of heightened liquidity risk, as opposed to general declines in liquidity levels. We propose a measure that shows liquidity risk has risen in equity and Treasury markets and discuss some factors behind the increase.
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20151006a

Discussion Paper
Forecasting Interest Rates over the Long Run
Diamond, Peter A.; Yu, Rui; Adrian, Tobias; Crump, Richard K. (2016-07-18)
In a previous post, we showed how market rates on U.S. Treasuries violate the expectations hypothesis because of time-varying risk premia. In this post, we provide evidence that term structure models have outperformed direct market-based measures in forecasting interest rates. This suggests that term structure models can play a role in long-run planning for public policy objectives such as assessing the viability of Social Security.
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20160718

Discussion Paper
Has U.S. Treasury Market Liquidity Deteriorated?
Vogt, Erik; Fleming, Michael J.; Adrian, Tobias; Stackman, Daniel (2015-08-17)
The issue of financial market liquidity has received tremendous attention lately. This partly arises from market participants' concerns that regulatory and structural changes have reduced dealers' market making abilities, but also from events such as the taper tantrum and the flash rally, in which Treasury prices fluctuated sharply amid seemingly little news. But is there really evidence of a sustained reduction in Treasury market liquidity?
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20150817

Working Paper
Macroprudential Policy: Case Study from a Tabletop Exercise
Zlate, Andrei; de Fontnouvelle, Patrick; Yang, Emily; Adrian, Tobias (2015-09-30)
Since the global financial crisis of 2007-09, policy makers and academics around the world have advocated the use of prudential tools for macroprudential purposes. This paper presents a macroprudential tabletop exercise that aimed at confronting Federal Reserve Bank presidents with a plausible, albeit hypothetical, macro-financial scenario that would lend itself to macroprudential considerations. In the tabletop exercise, the primary macroprudential objective was to reduce the likelihood and severity of possible future financial disruptions associated with the hypothetical overheating ...
Supervisory Research and Analysis Working Papers , Paper RPA 15-1

Discussion Paper
Do Treasury Term Premia Rise around Monetary Tightenings?
Moench, Emanuel; Crump, Richard K.; Adrian, Tobias (2013-04-15)
Some commentators have expressed concern that Treasury yields might rise sharply once the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) begins to raise the federal funds rate (FFR), worrying, in particular, about a sudden increase in Treasury term premia. In this post, we analyze the dynamics of Treasury term premia over the last fifty years and discuss their evolution around recent tightening cycles, paying special attention to the 1994 episode when bond prices dropped sharply around the world. We find that term premia don’t typically rise when monetary policy tightens. We also conclude, based on ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20130415

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