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Working Paper
A Framework for Understanding the Vulnerabilities of New Money-Like Products
Anadu, Kenechukwu E.; McCabe, Patrick E.; Perez-Sangimino, JP; Swem, Nathan (2026-06-22)
New money-like products, such as tokenized money market funds (MMFs), money market exchange-traded funds (MMETFs), and stablecoins, could be transformative for finance. These products may offer significant benefits, but like other money-like assets, they also have certain vulnerabilities. We introduce a framework to analyze the vulnerabilities of new products by comparing their features to those that contribute to vulnerabilities in MMFs. Specifically, we examine the extent to which each product engages in liquidity transformation, is subject to threshold effects, serves as a money-like ...
Supervisory Research and Analysis Working Papers , Paper SRA 26-01 (revised)

Working Paper
The Financial Stability Implications of Digital Assets
Scotti, Chiara; Carapella, Francesca; Rappoport, David E.; Baughman, Garth; Swem, Nathan; Vardoulakis, Alexandros (2022-08)
The value of assets in the digital ecosystem has grown rapidly, amid periods of high volatility. Does the digital financial system create new potential challenges to financial stability? This paper explores this question using the Federal Reserve’s framework for analyzing vulnerabilities in the traditional financial system. The digital asset ecosystem has recently proven itself highly fragile. However adverse digital asset markets shocks have had limited spillovers to the traditional financial system. Currently, the digital asset ecosystem does not provide significant financial services ...
Finance and Economics Discussion Series , Paper 2022-058

Report
The Financial Stability Implications of Digital Assets
Azar, Pablo; Baughman, Garth; Carapella, Francesca; Gerszten, Jacob; Lubis, Arazi; Perez-Sangimino, JP; Rappoport, David E.; Scotti, Chiara; Swem, Nathan; Vardoulakis, Alexandros; Werman, Aurite (2022-09-01)
The value of assets in the digital ecosystem has grown rapidly amid periods of high volatility. Does the digital financial system create new potential challenges to financial stability? This paper explores this question using the Federal Reserve’s framework for analyzing vulnerabilities in the traditional financial system. The digital asset ecosystem has recently proven itself to be highly fragile. However, adverse digital asset market shocks have had limited spillovers to the traditional financial system. Currently, the digital asset ecosystem does not provide significant financial ...
Staff Reports , Paper 1034

Working Paper
Fintech, Cryptocurrencies, and CBDC: Financial Structural Transformation in China”
Allen, Franklin; Gu, Xian; Jagtiani, Julapa (2022-04-11)
Fintech and decentralized finance have penetrated all areas of the financial system and have improved financial inclusion in the last decade. In this paper, we review the recent literature on fintech, cryptocurrencies, stablecoins, and central bank digital currencies (CBDCs). There are important implications from the rise of fintech and the introduction of stablecoins and CBDCs in recent years. We provide an overview of China’s experience in fintech, focusing on payments, digital banking, fintech lending, and the recent progress on its CBDC pilots (e-CNY). We also discuss important ...
Working Papers , Paper 22-12

Working Paper
Tariffs, Stablecoins, and the Demand for Dollars
Divakaruni, Anantha; Zimmerman, Peter (2025-08-28)
Several studies have shown that aggregate demand for US dollars fell following the announcement of tariffs by the US government on April 2, 2025. Using data on stablecoins as a proxy for dollar trading, we find that the decline in dollar demand is smaller for investors in countries that saw larger increases in tariffs. Our interpretation is that, as foreign investors anticipate that tariffs will make it more expensive to acquire US dollars in the future, they buy dollars today. This channel is stronger for more liquid stablecoins and for countries with tighter capital controls, consistent ...
Working Papers , Paper 25-21

Discussion Paper
Stablecoins and Crypto Shocks: An Update
Anadu, Kenechukwu E.; Azar, Pablo D.; Cipriani, Marco; Eisenbach, Thomas M.; Huang, Catherine; Landoni, Mattia; La Spada, Gabriele; Macchiavelli, Marco; Malfroy-Camine, Antoine; Wang, J. Christina (2025-04-23)
Stablecoins are crypto assets whose value is pegged to that of a fiat currency, usually the U.S. dollar. In our first Liberty Street Economics post, we described the rapid growth of stablecoins, the different types of stablecoin arrangements, and the May 2022 run on TerraUSD, the fourth largest stablecoin at the time. In a subsequent post, we estimated the impact of large declines in the price of bitcoin on cumulative net flows into stablecoins and showed the existence of flight-to-safety dynamics similar to those observed in money market mutual funds during periods of stress. In this post, ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20250423

Discussion Paper
Interoperability of Blockchain Systems and the Future of Payments
Durfee, Jon; Wang, Sarah; Torregrossa, Joseph; Lee, Michael Junho (2025-03-27)
In a previous post, we introduced a three-pillar framework for interoperability of payment systems and discussed how technological, legal, and economic factors contribute to achieve interoperability and aid in the “singleness of money”—that payments and exchange are not subject to volatility in the value of the money itself—in the context of legacy systems. In this post, we use the framework to characterize the interoperability of blockchain systems and propose a methodology for evaluating interoperability. We show evidence of limited interoperability and draw insights for the future ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20250327b

Discussion Paper
Runs on Stablecoins
Macchiavelli, Marco; Eisenbach, Thomas M.; Cipriani, Marco; La Spada, Gabriele; Landoni, Mattia; Wang, J. Christina; Huang, Catherine; Anadu, Kenechukwu E.; Malfroy-Camine, Antoine; Azar, Pablo D. (2023-07-12)
Stablecoins are digital assets whose value is pegged to that of fiat currencies, usually the U.S. dollar, with a typical exchange rate of one dollar per unit. Their market capitalization has grown exponentially over the last couple of years, from $5 billion in 2019 to around $180 billion in 2022. Notwithstanding their name, however, stablecoins can be very unstable: between May 1 and May 16, 2022, there was a run on stablecoins, with their circulation decreasing by 15.58 billion and their market capitalization dropping by $25.63 billion (see charts below.) In this post, we describe the ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20230712

Working Paper
Embedded Supervision: How to Build Regulation into Blockchain Finance
Auer, Raphael (2019-10-01)
The spread of distributed ledger technology (DLT) in finance could help to improve the efficiency and quality of supervision. This paper makes the case for embedded supervision, i.e., a regulatory framework that provides for compliance in tokenized markets to be automatically monitored by reading the market?s ledger, thus reducing the need for firms to actively collect, verify and deliver data. After sketching out a design for such schemes, the paper explores the conditions under which distributed ledger data might be used to monitor compliance. To this end, a decentralized market is modelled ...
Globalization Institute Working Papers , Paper 371

Briefing
What Are Stablecoins Used for Today? Estimating the Distribution of Stablecoins
Noll, Franklin (2026-04-10)
Uncovering where stablecoins are held and how they are used in the financial ecosystem provides three key insights: stablecoins are rarely used for payments, stablecoin infrastructure lacks interoperability, and the stablecoin ecosystem is still predominantly tied to crypto finance.
Payments System Research Briefing

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