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Discussion Paper
The Final Crisis Chronicle: The Panic of 1907 and the Birth of the Fed
Narron, James; Morgan, Donald P. (2016-11-18)
The panic of 1907 was among the most severe we’ve covered in our series and also the most transformative, as it led to the creation of the Federal Reserve System. Also known as the “Knickerbocker Crisis,” the panic of 1907 shares features with the 2007-08 crisis, including “shadow banks” in the form high-flying, less-regulated trusts operating beyond the safety net of the time, and a pivotal “Lehman moment” when Knickerbocker Trust, the second-largest trust in the country, was allowed to fail after J.P. Morgan refused to save it.
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20161118

Discussion Paper
Which Dealers Borrowed from the Fed’s Lender-of-Last-Resort Facilities?
Sarkar, Asani; Hrung, Warren B.; Fleming, Michael J.; Acharya, Viral V. (2017-05-10)
During the 2007-08 financial crisis, the Fed established lending facilities designed to improve market functioning by providing liquidity to nondepository financial institutions—the first lending targeted to this group since the 1930s. What was the financial condition of the dealers that borrowed from these facilities? Were they healthy institutions behaving opportunistically or were they genuinely distressed? In published research, we find that dealers in a weaker financial condition were more likely to participate than healthier ones and tended to borrow more. Our findings reinforce the ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20170510

Discussion Paper
Introducing a Series on the Evolution of Banks and Financial Intermediation
Cetorelli, Nicola (2012-07-16)
It used to be simple: Asked how to describe financial intermediation, you would just mention the word “bank.” Then things got complicated. As a result of innovation and legal and regulatory changes, financial intermediation has evolved in a way that invites us to question whether it revolves around banks anymore. The centerpiece of modern intermediation is the advent and growth of asset securitization: loans do not need to reside on the originator’s balance sheet until maturity any longer, but they can instead be packaged into securities and sold to investors. With securitization, ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20120716

Discussion Paper
The Impact of the Corporate Credit Facilities
Boyarchenko, Nina; Kovner, Anna; Shachar, Or (2020-10-01)
American companies have raised almost $1 trillion in the U.S. corporate bond market since March. If companies had been unable to refinance those bonds, their inability to repay may have led to an immediate default on all of their obligations, creating a cascade of defaults and layoffs. Based on Compustat data, an inability to access public bond markets could have affected companies employing more than 16 million people. In this post, we document the impact of the Primary Market and Secondary Market Corporate Credit Facilities (PMCCF and SMCCF) on bond market functioning, summarizing a ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20201001

Discussion Paper
Changes in the Returns to Market Making
Vogt, Erik; Fleming, Michael J.; Adrian, Tobias; Shachar, Or; Stackman, Daniel (2015-10-07)
Since the financial crisis, major U.S. banking institutions have increased their capital ratios in response to tighter capital requirements. Some market analysts have asserted that the higher capital and liquidity requirements are driving up the costs of market making and reducing market liquidity. If regulations were, in fact, increasing the cost of market making, one would expect to see a rise in the expected returns to that activity. In this post, we estimate market-making returns in equity and corporate bond markets to assess the impact of regulations.
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20151007

Discussion Paper
Insider Networks
Erol, Selman; Lee, Michael Junho (2020-06-25)
Modern-day financial systems are highly complex, with billions of exchanges in information, assets, and funds between individuals and institutions. Though daunting to operationalize, regulating these transmissions may be desirable in some instances. For example, securities regulators aim to protect investors by tracking and punishing insider trading. Recent evidence shows that insiders have formed sophisticated networksthat enable them to pursue activities outside the purview of regulatory oversight. In understanding the cat-and-mouse game between regulators and insiders, a key consideration ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20200625

Discussion Paper
Going with the Flow: Changes in Banks’ Business Model and Performance Implications
Cetorelli, Nicola; Jacobides, Michael G.; Stern, Samuel (2021-09-01)
Does the performance of banks improve or worsen when banks enter into new business activities? And does it matter which activities a bank expands into, or retreats from, and when that decision is made? These important questions have remained unaddressed due to a lack of data. In a recent publication, we used a unique data set detailing the organizational structure of the entire population of U.S. bank holding companies (BHCs). In this post, we draw on that research to show that while scope expansion on average hurts performance, entering into activities that are highly synergistic with core ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20210901

Discussion Paper
Banking the Unbanked: The Past and Future of the Free Checking Account
Berre, Stein; Blickle, Kristian S.; Chakrabarti, Rajashri (2021-06-30)
About one in twenty American households are unbanked (meaning they do not have a demand deposit or checking account) and many more are underbanked (meaning they do not have the range of bank-provided financial services they need). Unbanked and underbanked households are more likely to be lower-income households and households of color. Inadequate access to financial services pushes the unbanked to use high-cost alternatives for their transactional needs and can also hinder access to credit when households need it. That, in turn, can have adverse effects on the financial health, educational ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20210630a

Journal Article
How Did the Fed Funds Market Change When Excess Reserves Were Abundant?
Nosal, Ed; McGowan, John (2020-03-01)
Prior to the 2007-2008 financial crisis, excess reserves in the U.S. banking system were scarce. After the financial crisis and up until early 2018, excess reserves were abundant. In this article, the authors document, analyze, and explain the differences in the performance of the federal funds market under the two different excess reserves frameworks.
Economic Policy Review , Volume 26 , Issue 1 , Pages 15

Discussion Paper
Money Market Funds and Systemic Risk
Cipriani, Marco; Holscher, Michael; Martin, Antoine; McCabe, Patrick E. (2012-06-11)
On September 16, 2008, Reserve Primary Fund, a money market fund (MMF) with $65 billion in assets under management, announced that losses in its portfolio had caused the value of shares in the fund to drop from $1.00 to $0.97. The news that an MMF had ?broken the buck? spread panic quickly to other MMFs. In the two days following Reserve?s announcement, investors withdrew approximately $200 billion (10 percent of assets) from so-called ?prime? MMFs, which, like Reserve, mainly invest in privately issued short-term securities. The massive redemptions and resulting strains on MMFs contributed ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20120611

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