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Discussion Paper
Estimated Quarterly Levels of Bank Lending Standards and Credit Availability
Berman, Jaron; Wix, Carlo; Ionescu, Felicia (2025-06-06)
Levels of bank lending standards are an important gauge of the availability of credit to businesses and households, especially during times of high economic uncertainty. Yet while the Senior Loan Officer Opinion Survey on Bank Lending Practices (SLOOS) asks directly about banks' changes in standards each quarter, it only asks about levels once a year, in July.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-06-06-2

Discussion Paper
What Happens on Quarter-Ends in the Repo Market
Xia, Andy; Bowman, David; Bostrom, Erik; Rose, Amy (2025-06-06)
Over the course of the past two years, repo rates have begun to rise modestly around quarter-ends and, to a lesser extent, on some month-ends. As seen in Figure 1, after some time of the Secured Overnight Financing Rate (SOFR) remaining below or near the Overnight Reverse Repurchase (ON RRP) rate and with no or very little movement around quarter-ends, SOFR rose 7 basis points above the ON RRP rate at the end of March 2023, when banks' demand for liquid assets increased following the collapse of Silicon Valley Bank, and has temporarily increased over each quarter-end since then.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-06-06-1

Discussion Paper
Is China Really Growing at 5 Percent?
Cascaldi-Garcia, Danilo; Barcelona, William; Hoek, Jasper; Van Leemput, Eva (2025-06-06)
Chinese authorities recently announced a growth target of "around 5 percent" for 2025, the same as their 2024 target. Five percent is about half the pace of growth that China sustained from the 1980s to the early 2010s, but it is nonetheless quite high for an economy flirting with deflation and mired in a years-long property bust.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-06-06-4

Discussion Paper
What Drives the Rise in Remote Work? Preliminary Evidence from Utilization Rates and Wage Trends
Tito, Maria D. (2025-06-03)
The COVID-19 pandemic has propelled a dramatic increase in the demand for remote work across geographies, sectors, and occupations. While many firms transitioned to remote operations almost overnight, the shift in the firm demand for remote work has not merely been a temporary adjustment as a substantial number of firms have retained hybrid or fully remote models.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-06-03

Discussion Paper
Bank Lending to Private Credit: Size, Characteristics, and Financial Stability Implications
Cai, Fang; Lewis-Hayre, Siddhartha; Berrospide, Jose M.; Zikes, Filip (2025-05-23)
Private credit (or private debt) has emerged as one of the fastest-growing segments of nonbank financial intermediaries (NBFIs) over the past 15 years or so. Although there is no universal definition, private credit generally refers to direct loans made to mid-market businesses typically by non-bank vehicles such as private debt (PD) funds and Business Development Companies (BDCs) (Cai and Haque, 2024; Haque, Mayer, and Stefanescu, 2025). The asset class totaled $1.34 trillion in the U.S. (Exhibit 1) and nearly $2 trillion globally by 2024-Q2, and has grown roughly five times since 2009.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-05-23

Discussion Paper
Chinese Banks' Dollar Lending Decline
Walker, Joshua; DeMarco, Laurie Pounder (2025-05-16)
The dominant international role of the U.S. dollar has received renewed attention in recent years, but across many measures, the dollar's dominance in international finance has changed little.2However, there has been a notable change in one statistic. Dollar-denominated cross-border bank lending to emerging market economies (EMEs) declined almost 10 percent between the start of 2022 and early 2024.3According to our analysis using both public and restricted BIS banking statistics, this is largely because of a shift in the currency composition of lending abroad by Chinese banks. With both ...
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-05-16

Discussion Paper
Commissions and Omissions: Trends in Real Estate Broker Compensation
Banerjee, Rupkatha; Paciorek, Andrew D. (2025-05-12)
In March 2024, the National Association of Realtors reached a $418 million settlement to end multiple antitrust lawsuits brought against it and other brokerages by home sellers (Delouya 2024a). By banning the longstanding practice of advertising commission rates to be paid to buyers' agents in home listings and requiring buyers and their agents to explicitly set compensation terms, the settlement has the potential to upend the traditional model of residential real estate broker compensation, in which the buyer's and seller's agent were each paid as much as 3 percent of the home value by the ...
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-05-12

Discussion Paper
Detecting Tariff Effects on Consumer Prices in Real Time
Somale, Mariano A.; Minton, Robert (2025-05-09)
Economic researchers and forecasters face the difficult task of differentiating the effects of tariffs on consumer prices from the effects of other factorsâ such as inflation expectations, supply chain disruptions, labor market tightness, and energy pricesâ which may influence prices independently. The methods available for this task in the economics literature, however, are not suitable for assessing tariffs' effects on consumer prices in real time. Most studies in the literature analyze effects on goods prices at the port of entry (import prices1) and, in some cases, on domestic producer ...
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-05-09

Discussion Paper
Modeling Bank Stock Returns: A Factor-Based Approach
Morelli, Juan M.; Wang, Jessie Jiaxu; Ehresmann, Paige (2025-06-06)
In this note, we introduce a factor asset pricing model to analyze risk-adjusted returns on bank stocks. Given their high-frequency availability, bank stock returns offer a valuable lens into the risk exposures and dynamics of the banking sector.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-06-06-3

Discussion Paper
Introducing New Detail on the Racial Composition of Families in the 2022 Survey of Consumer Finances: Implications for the Distribution of U.S. Student Loan Debt
Ma, Eva; Goodman, Sarena (2025-06-26)
Student loan debt is the second-largest liability on U.S. household balance sheets, next after mortgages (Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 2025). While the availability of student loans can open educational opportunities that might not have otherwise existed, many borrowers struggle with repayment and may see their credit records damaged or wages garnished if they fall behind.
FEDS Notes , Paper 2025-06-26-2

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