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Discussion Paper
Why Large Bank Failures Are So Messy and What to Do about It?
If the Lehman Brothers failure proved anything, it was that large, complex bank failures are messy; they destroy value and can destabilize financial markets. We certainly don’t mean to trivialize matters by calling large bank failures “messy,” as it their messiness, particularly the destabilizing aspect, that creates the “too-big-to-fail” problem. In our contribution to the Economic Policy Review volume, we venture an explanation about why large bank failures are so messy and discuss a policy that can make them less so.
Discussion Paper
Flood Risk Outside Flood Zones — A Look at Mortgage Lending in Risky Areas
In support of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) creates flood maps that indicate areas with high flood risk, where mortgage applicants must buy flood insurance. The effects of flood insurance mandates were discussed in detail in a prior blog series. In 2021 alone, more than $200 billion worth of mortgages were originated in areas covered by a flood map. However, these maps are discrete, whereas the underlying flood risk may be continuous, and they are sometimes outdated. As a result, official flood maps may not fully capture the true ...
Report
Monetary Policy, Investor Flows, and Loan Fund Fragility
We show that monetary policy shocks have a positive effect on flows in bank-loan mutual funds. This relationship, however, is asymmetric: positive shocks cause small inflows, whereas negative shocks cause large outflows. Further, the effect of monetary policy shocks is stronger when short-term rates are higher. Finally, we document that large outflows from loan funds lead to significant declines in loan-level prices in the secondary leveraged loan market. Our results identify a novel channel of monetary policy transmission that not only affects a critical segment of the credit sector, but ...
Discussion Paper
Flood Risk and Firm Location Decisions in the Fed’s Second District
The intensity, duration, and frequency of flooding have increased over the past few decades. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 99 percent of U.S. counties have been impacted by a flooding event since 1999. As the frequency of flood events continues to increase, the number of people, buildings, and agriculture exposed to flood risk is only likely to grow. As a previous post points out, measuring the geographical accuracy of such risk is important and may impact bank lending. In this post, we focus on the distribution of flood risk within the Federal Reserve’s ...
Working Paper
The importance of bank seniority for relationship lending
The authors examine two aspects of a bank's interaction with its borrowers--the relative priority of bank debt and the role of banks as "relationship lenders." They show that making the bank senior improves its incentives to build a relationship with the firm, thereby fulfilling an important function of intermediated debt.
Discussion Paper
The Transformation of Banking: Tying Loan Interest Rates to Borrowers' Credit Default Swap Spreads
Banks? practice of tying loan interest rates to borrowers? credit default swap (CDS) spreads constitutes one of the most recent financial innovations. In this post, I discuss evidence from a research project, undertaken with Ivan Ivanov and Thu Vo, showing that this practice has lowered the cost of bank credit. I also discuss some potential drawbacks of this innovation.
Discussion Paper
Flood Risk and Flood Insurance
Recent natural disasters have renewed concerns about insurance markets for natural disaster relief. In January 2025, wildfires wreaked havoc in residential areas outside of Los Angeles. Direct damage estimates for the Los Angeles wildfires range from $76 billion to $131 billion, with only up to $45 billion of insured losses (Li and Yu, 2025). In this post, we examine the state of another disaster insurance market: the flood insurance market. We review features of flood insurance mandates, flood insurance take-up, and connect this to work in a related Staff Report that explores how mortgage ...
Report
The cost of bank regulatory capital
The Basel I Accord introduced a discontinuity in required capital for undrawn credit commitments. While banks had to set aside capital when they extended commitments with maturities in excess of one year, short-term commitments were not subject to a capital requirement. The Basel II Accord sought to reduce this discontinuity by extending capital standards to most short-term commitments. We use these differences in capital standards around the one-year maturity to infer the cost of bank regulatory capital. Our results show that following Basel I, undrawn fees and all-in-drawn credit spreads on ...
Working Paper
Securities activities in banking conglomerates: should their location be regulated?
A review of the arguments as to whether the location of the securities unit in a banking conglomerate should be subject to regulation. The author contends that correcting the safety nets distortions and allowing banks to choose where to locate their securities units is better than retaining such distortions and relying on corporate separateness to limit the problems they may create.
Journal Article
Banking and commerce: how does the United States compare to other countries?
Historically, U.S. banks have not been permitted to invest in nonfinancial firms. Restrictions on firms' investments in banks, however, are a recent phenomenon. A comparison of U.S. and foreign regulation of affiliations between banks and nonfinancial firms shows that foreign banking laws are much more liberal. Nonetheless, data on banks' investment in shares and participations shows that they represent only a small fraction of banks' assets.