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Report
Runs and Flights to Safety: Are Stablecoins the New Money Market Funds?
Macchiavelli, Marco; Eisenbach, Thomas M.; Anadu, Kenechukwu E.; Cipriani, Marco; La Spada, Gabriele; Wang, J. Christina; Huang, Catherine; Malfroy-Camine, Antoine; Azar, Pablo D.; Landoni, Mattia (2023-09-01)
Similar to the more traditional money market funds (MMFs), stablecoins aim to provide investors with safe, money-like assets. We investigate similarities and differences between these two investment products. Like MMFs, stablecoins suffer from “flight-to-safety” dynamics: we document net flows from riskier to safer stablecoins on days of crypto-market stress and estimate a discrete “break-the-buck” threshold of $1, below which stablecoin redemptions accelerate. We then focus on two specific stablecoin runs, in 2022 and 2023, showing that the same flight-to-safety dynamics also ...
Staff Reports , Paper 1073

Discussion Paper
Pricing Liquidity without Preemptive Runs
Cipriani, Marco; Martin, Antoine; McCabe, Patrick E. (2022-01-31)
Prime money market funds (MMFs) are vulnerable to runs. This was dramatically illustrated in September 2008 and March 2020, when massive outflows from prime MMFs worsened stress in the short-term funding markets and eased only after taxpayer-supported interventions by the Treasury and the Federal Reserve. In this post, we describe how mechanisms like swing pricing that charge a price for liquidity can reduce the vulnerability of prime MMFs without triggering preemptive runs.
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20220131

Report
Strategic Sophistication and Trading Profits: An Experiment with Professional Traders
Angrisani, Marco; Guarino, Antonio; Cipriani, Marco (2022-12-01)
We run an experiment where professional traders, endowed with private information, trade an asset over multiple periods. After the trading game, we gather information about the professional traders’ characteristics by having them carry out a series of tasks. We study which of these characteristics predict profits in the trading game. We find that strategic sophistication, as measured in the Guessing Game (for example, through level-k theory), is the only significant determinant of professional traders’ profits. In contrast, profits are not driven by individual characteristics such as ...
Staff Reports , Paper 1044

Journal Article
The Market Events of Mid-September 2019
Afonso, Gara; Cipriani, Marco; Copeland, Adam; Kovner, Anna; La Spada, Gabriele; Martin, Antoine (2021-08-01)
This article studies the mid-September 2019 stress in U.S. money markets: On September 16 and 17, unsecured and secured funding rates spiked, and on September 17, the effective federal funds rate broke the ceiling of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) target range. We highlight two factors that may have contributed to these events. First, reserves may have become scarce for at least some depository institutions, in the sense that these institutions’ reserve holdings may have been close to, or lower than, their desired level. Moreover, frictions in the interbank market may have ...
Economic Policy Review , Volume 27 , Issue 2 , Pages 26

Discussion Paper
Discount Window Stigma After the Global Financial Crisis
Armantier, Olivier; Cipriani, Marco; Sarkar, Asani (2025-01-17)
The rapidity of deposit outflows during the March 2023 banking run highlights the important role that the Federal Reserve’s discount window should play in strengthening financial stability. A lack of borrowing, however, has plagued the discount window for decades, likely due to banks’ concerns about stigma—that is, their unwillingness to borrow at the discount window because it may be viewed as a sign of financial weakness in the eyes of regulators and market participants. The discount window has been reformed several times to alleviate this problem. Although the presence of stigma ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20250117

Report
Financial Transaction Taxes and the Informational Efficiency of Financial Markets: A Structural Estimation
Cipriani, Marco; Guarino, Antonio; Uthemann, Andreas (2021-12-01)
We develop a new methodology to estimate the impact of a financial transaction tax (FTT) on financial market outcomes. In our sequential trading model, there are price-elastic noise and informed traders. We estimate the model through maximum likelihood for a sample of sixty New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) stocks in 2017. We quantify the effect of introducing an FTT given the parameter estimates. An FTT increases the proportion of informed trading, improves information aggregation, but lowers trading volume and welfare. For some less-liquid stocks, however, an FTT blocks private information ...
Staff Reports , Paper 993

Briefing
Anatomy of the Bank Runs in March 2023
Cipriani, Marco; Eisenbach, Thomas M.; Kovner, Anna (2024-12)
Runs have plagued the banking system for centuries and returned to prominence with the bank failures in early 2023. In a traditional run — such as depicted in classic photos from the Great Depression — depositors line up in front of a bank to withdraw their cash. This is not how modern bank runs occur: Today, depositors move money from a risky to a safe bank through electronic payment systems. In a recently published staff report, we use data on wholesale and retail payments to understand the bank run of March 2023.1 Which banks were run on? How were they different from other banks? And ...
Richmond Fed Economic Brief , Volume 24 , Issue 39

Discussion Paper
Monetary Policy and Money Market Funds in Europe
Cipriani, Marco; Fricke, Daniel; Greppmair, Stefan; La Spada, Gabriele; Paludkiewicz, Karol (2024-04-11)
As shown in a past Liberty Street Economics post, in the United States, the yields of money market fund (MMF) shares respond to changes in monetary policy rates much more than the rates of bank deposits; in other words, the MMF beta is much higher than the deposit beta. Consistent with this, the size of the U.S. MMF industry fluctuates over the interest rate cycle, expanding during times of monetary policy tightening. In this post, we show that the relationship between the policy rates of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the size of European MMFs investing in euro-denominated securities is ...
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20240411

Report
Financial Sanctions, SWIFT, and the Architecture of the International Payments System
Cipriani, Marco; Goldberg, Linda S.; La Spada, Gabriele (2023-01-01)
Financial sanctions, alongside economic sanctions, are components of the toolkit used by governments as part of international diplomacy. The use of sanctions, especially financial, has increased over the last seventy years. Financial sanctions have been particularly important whenever the goals of the sanctioning countries were related to democracy and human rights. Financial sanctions restrict entities—countries, businesses, or even individuals—from purchasing or selling financial assets, or from accessing custodial or other financial services. They can be imposed on a sanctioned ...
Staff Reports , Paper 1047

Discussion Paper
The Fed’s Balance Sheet Runoff: The Role of Levered NBFIs and Households
Cipriani, Marco; Clouse, James A.; Logan, Lorie; Martin, Antoine; Riordan, Will (2022-04-12)
In a Liberty Street Economics post that appeared yesterday, we described the mechanics of the Federal Reserve’s balance sheet “runoff” when newly issued Treasury securities are purchased by banks and money market funds (MMFs). The same mechanics would largely hold true when mortgage-backed securities (MBS) are purchased by banks. In this post, we show what happens when newly issued Treasury securities are purchased by levered nonbank financial institutions (NBFIs)—such as hedge funds or nonbank dealers—and by households.
Liberty Street Economics , Paper 20220412

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